Common diagnostic methods for the diagnosis of human T lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)

Authors
farkhonde zibadi
monireh bolourinezhad
majid darroudi
Abstract


Introduction

Human lymphotropic virus type 1 is the first human oncoretrovirus that can cause Adult T-cell Lukemia/ Lymphoma and HTLV-1 Associated Myelopathy/ Tropical Spastic Paraparesis as serious complications of infection. About 20 million people worldwide are infected with the HTLV-1 virus. Since most people carry this virus are asymptomatics, quick identification of the virus is essential for diagnosis, treatment, and disruption of transmission.

This virus has been detected using genetic and serological techniques. main screening technique is the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which is typically followed by confirmatory tests using the western blotting (WB) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods. In this study, the various methods for diagnosing HTLV-1 infection were reviewed. The most widely used technical assays for HTLV-1 among all the documented techniques of detection are serological and molecular tests. Without a confirming test, the ELISA technique has a number of restrictions that reduce the reliability of the findings. Further analysis of these methods' accuracy is required in light of the frequency of HTLV-1 and the constraints of the available detection techniques. It is now possible to use cutting-edge technical innovations like biosensors to conduct HTLV-1 diagnostics.


Keywords
Human T lymphotropic virus type 1
HTLV-1
biosensors
molecular methods
serological methods
1. Poiesz BJ, Ruscetti FW, Gazdar AF, Bunn PA, Minna JD, Gallo RC. Detection and isolation of type C retrovirus particles from fresh and cultured lymphocytes of a patient with cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980;77(12 II):7415–9.
2. Norouzi M, Zarei Ghobadi M, Golmimi M, Mozhgani SH, Ghourchian H, Rezaee SA. Quantum Dot-Based Biosensor for the Detection of Human T-Lymphotropic Virus-1. Anal Lett. 2017;50(15):2402–11.
3. Fani M, Rezayi M, Meshkat Z, Rezaee SA, Makvandi M, Abouzari-Lotf E, et al. Current approaches for detection of human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1: A systematic review. J Cell Physiol. 2019;234(8):12433–41.
4. Yoshida M, Miyoshi I, Hinuma Y. Isolation and characterization of retrovirus from cell lines of human adult T-cell leukemia and its implication in the disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982;79(6 I):2031–5.
5. Gessain A, Vernant JC, Maurs L, Barin F, Gout O, Calender A de, et al. Antibodies to human T-lymphotropic virus type-I in patients with tropical spastic paraparesis. Lancet. 1985;326(8452):407–10.
6. Morgan OS, Mora C, Rodgers-Johnson P, Char G. HTLV-1 AND POLYMYOSITIS IN JAMAICA. Lancet [Internet]. 1989;334(8673):1184–7.
7. Nishioka K. HTLV-I Arthropathy and Sjögren Syndrome. JAIDS J Acquir Immune
Defic Syndr 1996;13.
8. Nishioka K. Chronic inflammatory arthropathy associated with HTLV-I. Lancet. 1989;1:441.
9. Gonçalves DU, Proietti FA, Ribas JGR, Araújo MG, Pinheiro SR, Guedes AC, et al. Epidemiology, treatment, and prevention of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1associated diseases. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23(3):577–89.
10. Bangham CRM. Human T Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1: Persistence and Pathogenesis. Annu Rev Immunol. 2018;36(November 2017):43–71.
11. Kubota R. Pathogenesis of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. Clin Exp Neuroimmunol. 2017;8(2):117– 28.
12. Cook LB, Rowan AG, Melamed A, Taylor GP, Bangham CRM. HTLV-1-infected T cells contain a single integrated provirus in natural infection. Blood.
13. 2012;120(17):3488–90
14. Yamano Y, Nagai M, Brennan M, Mora CA, Soldan SS, Tomaru U, et al. Correlation of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) mRNA with proviral DNA load, virus-specific CD8+ T cells, and disease severity in HTLV-1associated myelopathy (HAM/TSP). Blood. 2002;99(1):88–94.
15. Enose-Akahata Y, Vellucci A, Jacobson S. Role of HTLV-1 Tax and HBZ in the pathogenesis of HAM/TSP. Front Microbiol. 2017;8(DEC):1–10.
16. Nozuma S, Kubota R, Jacobson S. Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-)1 and cellular immune response in HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. J Neurovirol. 2020;26(5):652–63.
17. Melamed A, Laydon DJ, Khatib H Al, Rowan AG, Taylor GP, Bangham CRM. HTLV ‑ 1 drives vigorous clonal expansion of infected CD8 + T cells in natural infection. Retrovirology. 2015;4–13.
18. Tsukasaki K, Hermine O, Bazarbachi A, Ratner L, Ramos JC, Jr WH, et al.
Definition , Prognostic Factors , Treatment , and Response Criteria of Adult T-Cell Leukemia-Lymphoma : A Proposal From an International Consensus Meeting. 2009;27(3):453–9.
19. Mozhgani SH, Zarei-Ghobadi M, Teymoori-Rad M, Mokhtari-Azad T, Mirzaie M, Sheikhi M, et al. Human T-lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1) pathogenesis: A systems virology study. J Cell Biochem. 2018;119(5):3968–79.
20. Aye MM, Matsuoka E, Moritoyo T, Umehara F, Suehara M, Hokezu Y, et al. Histopathological analysis of four autopsy cases of HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis: Inflammatory changes occur simultaneously in the entire central nervous system. Acta Neuropathol. 2000;100(3):245–52.
21. Takenouchi N, Yamano Y, Usuku K, Osame M, Izumo S. Usefulness of Proviral Load Measurement for Monitoring of Disease Activity in Individual Patients with
Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type I-Associated Myelopathy/Tropical Spastic Paraparesis. J Neurovirol. 2003;9(1):29–35. Available from:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13550280390173418
22. Hayashi D, Kubota R, Takenouchi N, Nakamura T, Umehara F, Arimura K, et al. Accumulation of human T-lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I)-infected cells in the cerebrospinal fluid during the exacerbation of HTLV-I - Associated myelopathy. J Neurovirol. 2008;14(5):459–63.
23. Keshvari M, Hajibeigi B, Azarkeivan A, Keyvani H, Behnava B, Saiedi Hosseini SY, et al. Seroepidemiology of human T-cell lymphotropic virus among Iranian adult thalassemic patients. Transfus Med. 2014;24(4):227–32.
24. Abedi F, Mozhgani SH, Rahimzadegan M, Gudarzi H, Valizadeh N, Rezaee SA. Prevalence and phylogenic study of human T-lymphotropic virus 1 in patients with thalassemia in the northeast of Iran. Future Virol. 2017;12(5):253–8.
25. Vermeulen M, Sykes W, Coleman C, Custer B, Jacobs G, Jaza J, et al. The prevalence of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 & 2 (HTLV-1/2) in South African blood donors. Vox Sang. 2019;114(5):451–8.
26. Fani M, Rezayi M, Meshkat Z, Rezaee SA, Makvandi M, Ahmadi Angali K. A
Novel Electrochemical DNA Biosensor Based on a Gold Nanoparticles-Reduced Graphene Oxide-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite to Detect Human T-Lymphotropic Virus-1. IEEE Sens J. 2020;20(18):10625–32.
27. Yara S, Fujita J, Date H. Transmission of human T-lymphotropic virus type I by bilateral living-donor lobar lung transplantation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg
[Internet]. 2009;138(1):255–6. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcvs.2008.12.050
28. Cassar O, Gessain A. Serological and molecular methods to study epidemiological aspects of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 infection. Methods Mol Biol. 2017;1582:3–24.
29. Hedayati-Moghaddam MR. A systematic review for estimation of HTLV-I infection in the blood donors of Iran. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2013;16(3):196–201.
30. Rafatpanah H, Hedayati-Moghaddam MR, Fathimoghadam F, Bidkhori HR, Shamsian SK, Ahmadi S, et al. High prevalence of HTLV-I infection in Mashhad, Northeast Iran: A population-based seroepidemiology survey. J Clin Virol.2011;52(3):172–6.
31. Franco-Paredes C, Jacob JT, Hidron A, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Kuhar D, Caliendo AM. Transplantation and tropical infectious diseases. Int J Infect Dis. 2010;14(3):e189–96.
32. Rafatpanah H, Torkamani M, Valizadeh N, Vakili R, Meshkani B, Khademi H, et al. Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of HTLV-1 in a segregated population in Iran. J Med Virol. 2016;88(7):1247–53.
33. Satake M, Iwanaga M, Sagara Y, Watanabe T, Okuma K, Hamaguchi I. Incidence of human T-lymphotropic virus 1 infection in adolescent and adult blood donors in
Japan: a nationwide retrospective cohort analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16(11):1246–54.
34. Nagai M, Usuku K, Matsumoto W, Kodama D, Takenouchi N, Moritoyo T, et al. Analysis Of Htlv-I Proviral Load In 202 Ham/Tsp Patients And 243 Asymptomatic Htlv-I Carriers: High Proviral Load Strongly Predisposes To Ham/Tsp. J Neurovirol. 1998;4(6):586–93.
35. Einsiedel LJ, Pham H, Woodman RJ, Pepperill C, Taylor KA. The prevalence and clinical associations of HTLV-1 infection in a remote Indigenous community. Med J Aust. 2016;205(7):305–9.
36. Salehi M, Mostafavi SKS, Ghasemian A, Gholami M, Kazemi-Vardanjani A, Rahimi MK. Seroepidemiology of HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 infection in Neyshabur city, North-Eastern Iran, during 2010-2014. Iran Biomed J. 2017;21(1):57–60.
37. Azarpazhooh MR, Hasanpour K, Ghanbari M, Rezaee SAR, Mashkani B, HedayatiMoghaddam MR, et al. Human t-lymphotropic virus type 1 prevalence in northeastern Iran, sabzevar: An epidemiologic-based study and phylogenetic analysis. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2012;28(9):895–901.
38. Safabakhsh H, Jalalian M, Karimi G. Seroepidemiology of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV1) in Mashhad. Glob J Health Sci. 2014;6(5):99– 104.
39. Desdouits M, Cassar O, Maisonobe T, Desrames A, Aouba A, Hermine O, et al. HTLV-1-associated inflammatory myopathies: Low proviral load and moderate inflammation in 13 patients from West Indies and West Africa. J Clin Virol .2013;57(1):70–6.
40. Jalaeikhoo H, Soleymani M, Rajaeinejad M, Keyhani M. Prevalence of human Tlymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection in patients with hematologic disorders and non-hematologic malignancies in a tertiary referral hospital. Arch Iran Med. 2017;20(4):224–8.
41. Li HC, Biggar RJ, Miley WJ, Maloney EM, Cranston B, Hanchard B, et al. Provirus load in breast milk and risk of mother-to-child transmission of human T lymphotropic virus type I. J Infect Dis. 2004;190(7):1275–8.
42. Roucoux DF, Wang B, Smith D, Nass CC, Smith J, Hutching ST, et al. A prospective study of sexual transmission of human T lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-I and HTLV-II. J Infect Dis. 2005;191(9):1490–7.
43. Mozhgani SH, Kermani HA, Norouzi M, Arabi M, Soltani S. Nanotechnology based strategies for HIV-1 and HTLV-1 retroviruses gene detection. Heliyon. 2020;6(5):e04048.
44. Ghobadi MZ, Mozhgani SH, Hakimian F, Norouzi M, Rezaee SA, Ghourchian H. Long segment detection of HTLV-1 genome based on the fluorescence quenching technique. Heliyon. 2018;4(12):e00996.
45. Zarei-Ghobadi M, Mozhgani SH, Dashtestani F, Yadegari A, Hakimian F, Norouzi M, et al. A genosensor for detection of HTLV-I based on photoluminescence quenching of fluorescent carbon dots in presence of iron magnetic nanoparticle-capped Au. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):1–8.
46. Fani M, Rezayi M, Pourianfar HR, Meshkat Z, Makvandi M, Gholami M, et al. Rapid and label-free electrochemical DNA biosensor based on a facile one-step electrochemical synthesis of rGO–PPy–(L-Cys)–AuNPs nanocomposite for the HTLV-1 oligonucleotide detection. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. 2021;68(3):626–35.
47. Vikrant K, Bhardwaj N, Bhardwaj SK, Kim KH, Deep A. Nanomaterials as efficient platforms for sensing DNA. Biomaterials. 2019;214(May).
48. Shi XM, Fan GC, Tang X, Shen Q, Zhu JJ. Ultrasensitive photoelectrochemical biosensor for the detection of HTLV-I DNA: A cascade signal amplification strategy integrating λ-exonuclease aided target recycling with hybridization chain reaction and enzyme catalysis. Biosens Bioelectron [Internet]. 2018;109(February):190–6.
49. Takatsuki K. Adult T cell leukemia in Japan. Top Hematol. 1977 [cited 2022 Aug 2];73–7.
50. Matsuoka M, Mesnard JM. HTLV-1 bZIP factor: the key viral gene for pathogenesis. Retrovirology. 2020 Dec;17(1):1-8.